Wild Salmon

Author: Kate Ashley

PDF Published: Monday 19 Aug 2019 (SB 19-48)

Image: Figure 1: Potential Atlantic salmon ocean migration route

Image: Figure 2: Salmon life cycle

Image: Figure 3: Total number of rod caught salmon

Image: Figure 4: Number of rod caught salmon divided by type

Image: Figure 5: Total number of Atlantic salmon caught by net

Image: Figure 6: Fixed engine netting effort based on the number of traps used per months

Image: Figure 7: Net and coble effort based on the number of fishing crews each month

Image: Figure 8: Estimated number of salmon returning to Scottish coastal waters

Image: Figure 9: Flow chart summarizing the salmon conservation assessment methods

Image: Figure 10: Map of Scotland showing the geographic distribution of river gradings

Image: Figure 11: Change in Scotland's salmon rivers' grades based on the most recent assessment methods

Image: Figure 12: Total number of rod caught sea trout

Image: Figure 13: Total reported catch of Atlantic salmon split by North Atlantic region

Image: Figure 14: Summary of the main pressures facing wild Atlantic salmon in Scotland

Image: Figure 15: The water quality status of Scotland's rivers by percentage of rivers

Image: Figure 16: Map of Scotland's rivers showing river condition in terms of access for fish migration in 2014

Image: Figure 17: Map of Scotland's rivers showing river condition in terms of water flows and levels in 2014

Image: Figure 18: North Atlantic sea surface temperature anomalies (difference from the mean) (°C)

Scottish Government. (2019). International Year of the Salmon. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/Salmon-Trout-Coarse/IYS19 [accessed 2 May 2019]

The Monteith. (n.d.) Salmon Fishing In Scotland. Retrieved from https://www.salmon-fishing-scotland.com/fishing-in-scotland-for-salmon/ [accessed 2 May 2019]

Marine Institute. (n.d.) Salmon Life Cycle. Retrieved from https://www.marine.ie/Home/site-area/areas-activity/fisheries-ecosystems/salmon-life-cycle [accessed 2 May 2019]

North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization. (n.d.) The Atlantic Salmon. Retrieved from http://www.nasco.int/atlanticsalmon.html [accessed 2 May 2019]

Dadswell, M.J., Spares, A.D., Reader, J.M., & Stokesbury, M.J.W. (2010). The North Atlantic subpolar gyre and the marine migration of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar: the ‘Merry-Go-Round’ hypothesis. Journal of Fish Biology. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02673.x

Scottish Natural Heritage. (n.d.) Atlantic Salmon. Retrieved from https://www.nature.scot/plants-animals-and-fungi/fish/freshwater-fish/atlantic-salmon [accessed 2 May 2019]

Hendry, K., & Cragg-Hine, D. (2003). Ecology of the Atlantic Salmon. (n.p.): English Nature.

Marine Scotland. (2019). Salmon and sea trout fishing (fixed engine and net & coble fisheries). Retrieved from http://marine.gov.scot/information/salmon-and-sea-trout-fishing-fixed-engine-and-net-coble-fisheries [accessed 17 May 2019]

Allan, W. (2002). The Conservation of Salmon (Prohibition of Sale) (Scotland) Regulations 2002. Retrieved from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2002/418/pdfs/ssi_20020418_en.pdf [accessed 17 May 2019]

Scottish Government. (2019). Conservation of Wild Salmon. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/Salmon-Trout-Coarse/fishreform/licence/status [accessed 29 April 2019]

The Conservation of Salmon (Scotland) Regulations 2016. (2016). Retrieved from www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2016/115/pdfs/ssi_20160115_en.pdf [accessed 10 May 2019]

Fisheries Management Scotland. (2019). Esk Salmon Fishery Board ends netting for salmon and sea trout on the River North Esk. Retrieved from http://fms.scot/esk-salmon-fishery-board-ends-netting-for-salmon-and-sea-trout-on-the-river-north-esk/ [accessed 25 June 2019]

Scottish Government. (2014). Fishing Methods. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/Salmon-Trout-Coarse/game/methods [accessed 17 May 2019]

Nelson, J.S., Schultze, H.P., & Wilson, M.V.H. (2010). Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil.

Samways, K.M., Blair, T.J., Charest, M.A., & Cunjak, R.A. (2017). Effects of spawning Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) on total lipid content and fatty acid composition of river food webs. Ecosphere, 8(6). doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1818

Featherstone, A.W. (n.d.) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Retrieved from https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/species-profiles/atlantic-salmon/ [accessed 9 May 2019]

Harris, C.M., Calladine, J.R., Wernham, C.V., & Park, K.J. (2008). Impacts of piscivorous birds on salmonid populations and game fisheries in Scotland: a review. Wildlife Biology, 14, 395-411.

Cairns, D.K. (2016). A review of predator-prey and competitive inter-specific interactions in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Retrieved from http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas-sccs/publications/resdocs-docrech/2006/2006_019-eng.htm [accessed 10 June 2019]

Middlemas, S.J., Armstrong, J.D., & Thompson, P.M. (2003). Chapter 5 The Significance of Marine Mammal Predation on Salmon and Sea Trout. Retrieved from https://www.abdn.ac.uk/lighthouse/documents/The_significance_of_mar_mam_2003.pdf [accessed 2 July 2019]

Joint Nature Conservation Committee. (2016, August 15). UK BAP priority terrestrial invertebrate species. Retrieved from http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-5169 [accessed 9 May 2019]

Ziuganov, V.V., & Zotin, A.A. (1995). SYMBIOSIS OF FRESHWATER PEARL MUSSELS AND ATLANTIC SALMON. Twelfth International Malacological Congress, Vigo, Spain, 3rd-8th September 1995.

FRS Freshwater Laboratory. (n.d.) Decline & Recovery of Salmon in the Central Belt of Scotland. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Uploads/Documents/Decline%20poster.pdf [accessed 9 May 2019]

Public and Corporate Economic Consultants. (2017, March). An Analysis of the Value of Wild Fisheries in Scotland - Final Report. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Resource/0051/00514801.pdf [accessed 1 May 2019]

Marine Scotland. (2019). Salmon and Sea Trout fishery statistics: 2018 Season - reported catch and effort by method. DOI: 10.4789/12206-1. Retrieved from https://scotland.shinyapps.io/sg-salmon-sea-trout-catch/ [accessed 30 April 2019]

Fishing in Scotland. (2004). Salmon Fishing Seasons in Scotland. Retrieved from http://www.fishing-uk-scotland.com/htm/scotland-fishing-seasons.htm [accessed 26 June 2019]

Sardi, M. (n.d.) NORWAY - A GUIDE TO SALMON FISHING. Retrieved from https://www.sportfish.co.uk/norway-a-guide-to-salmon-fishing [accessed 26 June 2019]

Trees for Life. (n.d.) Salmon. Retrieved from https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/mythology-folklore/salmon/ [accessed 8 May 2019]

The Glasgow Story. (n.d.) Glasgow Coat of Arms. Retrieved from https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSA05045 [accessed 8 May 2019]

McCarthy, M. (2015, April 6). The loss of Scottish salmon is a cultural catastrophe. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/the-loss-of-scottish-salmon-is-a-cultural-catastrophe-10158356.html [accessed 8 May 2019]

Musée National de Préhistoire. (n.d.) ABRI DU POISSON. Retrieved from https://musee-prehistoire-eyzies.fr/le-musee/un-musee-au-coeur-de-la-vallee-de-lhomme/les-sites-prehistoriques-de-la-vallee-de-la-veze-3 [accessed 8 May 2019]

Robertson, A. (2013). AUTUMN SPECTACULARS: WATCH LEAPING ATLANTIC SALMON STEAL THE SHOW. Retrieved from https://www.visitscotland.com/blog/wildlife/leaping-salmon/ [accessed 2 May 2019]

Marine Scotland. (2018, October 25). Conservation Regulations 2019. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Resource/0054/00542422.pdf [accessed 2 May 2019]

Marine Scotland. (2019). Salmon and Sea Trout fishery statistics: 2018 Season - reported catch and effort by method. Retrieved from https://data.marine.gov.scot/dataset/salmon-and-sea-trout-fishery-statistics-2018-season-reported-catch-and-effort-method [accessed 17 June 2019]

ICES. (2019). WORKING GROUP ON NORTH ATLANTIC SALMON (WGNAS). ICES Scientific Reports. 1:16. 368 pp. Retrieved from https://www.ices.dk/sites/pub/Publication%20Reports/Expert%20Group%20Report/Fisheries%20Resources%20Steering%20Group/2019/WGNAS/WGNAS_2019.pdf [accessed 13 May 2019]

Middlemas, S.J. (2019). Understanding the decline of Atlantic salmon catches in Scotland. Retrieved from https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/understanding-decline-atlantic-salmon-catches-scotland/ [accessed 3 July 2019]

Marine Scotland. (2019, February 18). CONSERVATION OF SALMON – ASSESSMENT FOR THE 2019 SEASON. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Resource/0054/00546373.docx [accessed 10 May 2019]

Marine Scotland. (2018, October 25). Summary of Conservation Regulation Methods. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Resource/0054/00542423.pdf [accessed 10 May 2019]

Scottish Government. (2017, February 16). Sea trout. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/marine-environment/species/fish/freshwater/seatrout [accessed 14 May 2019]

Kettle-White, A. (2018). Turning the tide for Scotland’s sea trout. Retrieved from https://scottishwildlifetrust.org.uk/2018/12/turning-the-tide-for-scotlands-sea-trout/ [accessed 14 May 2019]

Scottish Government. (2017). Eel. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/marine-environment/species/fish/freshwater/eel [accessed 18 June 2019]

The Freshwater Fish Conservation (Prohibition on Fishing for Eels) (Scotland) Regulations 2008. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2008/419/regulation/2/made [accessed 26 June 2019]

Scottish Government. (2017). Arctic charr. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/marine-environment/species/fish/freshwater/charr [accessed 18 June 2019]

Winfield, I.J., Hateley, J., Fletcher, J.M., James, J.B., Bean, C.W., & Clabburn, P. (2010). Population trends of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) in the UK: assessing the evidence for a widespread decline in response to climate change. Hydrobiologia, 650, 55-65. doi: 10.1007/s10750-009-0078-1

Crozier, W.W., Schön, P.J., Chaput, G., Potter, E.C.E., Maoiléidigh, N., & MacLean, J.C. (2004). Managing Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in the mixed stock environment: challenges and considerations. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 61, 1344-1358. doi: 10.1016/j.icesjms.2004.08.013

Jonsson, N., Jonsson, B., & Hansen, L.P. (1998). The relative role of density-dependent and density-independent survival in the life cycle of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Journal of Animal Ecology, 67, 640-762.

Nicieza, A.G., & Metcalfe, M.B. (1997). Growth Compensation in Juvenile Atlantic Salmon: Responses to Depressed Temperature and Food Availability. Ecology, 78(8), 2385-2400.

Elliot, J.M., & Elliot, J.E. (2010). Temperature requirements of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, brown trout Salmo trutta and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus: predicting the effects of climate change. Journal of Fish Biology, 77, 1793-1817. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02762.x

Solomon, D.J., & Lightfoot, G.W. (2008). The thermal biology of brown trout and Atlantic salmon. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291741/scho0808bolv-e-e.pdf [accessed 17 May 2019]

Cappell, R., Tetzlaff, D., & Soulsby, C. (2013). Will catchment characteristics moderate the projected effects of climate change on flow regimes in the Scottish Highlands?. Hydrological Processes, 27, 687-699. doi: 10.1002/hyp.9626

James Hutton Institute. (2018). Records from the past century show that Scottish rivers are warming. Retrieved from https://www.hutton.ac.uk/sites/default/files/files/research/srp2016-21/River%20Temp%20Factsheet-Final.pdf [accessed 21 June 2019]

Woodland Trust. (2016). Keeping Rivers Cool: A Guidance Manual. Retrieved from http://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/mediafile/100814410/pg-wt-060216-keeping-rivers-cool.pdf [accessed 26 June 2019]

Environment Agency. (2012). Keeping Rivers Cool: Getting ready for climate change by creating riparian shade. Retrieved from https://www.wildtrout.org/assets/files/news/Keeping%20Rivers%20Cool_Guidance%20Manual_v1%20%2023%2008%2012.pdf [accessed 16 May 2019]

Dugdale, S.J., Malcolm, I.A., Kantola, K., & Hannah, D.M. (2018). Stream temperature under contrasting riparian forest cover: Understanding thermal dynamics and heat exchange processes. Science of the Total Environment, 1375-1389. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.198

Garner, G., Malcolm, I.A., Sadler, J.P., & Hannah, D.M. (2017). The role of riparian vegetation density, channel orientation and water velocity in determining river temperature dynamics. Journal of Hydrology, 553, 471-485. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.03.024

Kawaguchi, Y., & Nakano, S. (2001). Contribution of terrestrial invertebrates to the annual resource budget for salmonids in forest and grassland reaches of a headwater stream. Freshwater Biology, 46, 303-316.

Hendry, K., Cragg-Hine, D., O’Grady, M., Sambrook, H., & Stephen, A. (2003). Management of habitat for rehabilitation and enhancement of salmonid stocks. Fisheries Research, 62, 171-192.

Seavy, N.E., Gardali, T., Golet, G.H., Griggs, T., Howell, C.A., Kelsey, R., … Weigand, J.F. (2009). Why Climate Change Makes Riparian Restoration More Important than Ever: Recommendations for Practice and Research. Ecological Restoration, 27(3), 330-338.

Woodland Trust. (n.d.) Trees and Climate Change. Retrieved from https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/mediafile/100097692/trees-and-climate-change.pdf [accessed 19 June 2019]

Addy, S., Cooksley, S., Dodd, N., Waylen, K., Stockan, J., Byg, A., … Holstead, K. (2016). River Restoration and Biodiversity. Retrieved from http://www.ecrr.org/Portals/27/River%20Restoration%20and%20biodiversity_web_1.pdf [accessed 21 June 2019]

SEPA. (n.d.) Long-term river water quality indicator. Retrieved from https://www.sepa.org.uk/environment/water/aquatic-classification/river-water-quality-indicator/

Kroglund, F., Rosseland, B.O., Teien, H.C., Salbu, B., Kristensen, T., & Finstad, B. (2008). Water quality limits for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) exposed to short term reductions in pH and increased aluminum simulating episodes. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 12, 491-507.

Neal, C., Rowland, P., Neal, M., Jarvie, H.P., Lawlor, A., Sleep, D., … Scholefield, P. (2011). Aluminium in UK rivers: a need for integrated research related to kinetic factors, colloidal transport, carbon and habitat. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13, 2153-2164.

Solbe, J. (1997). Water Quality for Salmon and Trout. Pitlochry: The Atlantic Salmon Trust.

Malcolm, I.A., Youngson, A.F., & Soulsby, C. (2003). SURVIVAL OF SALMONID EGGS IN A DEGRADED GRAVEL-BED STREAM: EFFECTS OF GROUNDWATER–SURFACE WATER INTERACTIONS. River Research and Applications, 19, 303-316.

Armstrong, J.D., Kemp, P.S., Kennedy, G.J.A., Ladle, M., & Milner, N.J. (2003). Habitat requirements of Atlantic salmon and brown trout in rivers and streams. Fisheries Research, 62, 143-170.

Malcolm, I.A., Soulsby, C., Youngson, A.F., Hannah, D.M., McLaren, I.S., & Thorne, A. (2004). Hydrological Processes. Hydrological influences on hyporheic water quality: implications for salmon egg survival, 18, 1543-1560.

Bilotta, G.S., & Brazier, R.E. (2008). Understanding the influence of suspended solids on water quality and aquatic biota. Water Research, 42, 2849-2861.

Knoph, M.B. (1992). ACUTE TOXICITY OF AMMONIA TO ATLANTIC SALMON (SALMO SALAR) PARR. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part C: Comparative Pharmacology and Toxicology, 101, 275-282.

Williams, E.M., & Eddy, F.B. (1989). Effect of Nitrite on the Embryonic Development of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 46(10), 1726-1729.

Chislock, M.F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R.A., & Wilson, A.E. (2013). Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/eutrophication-causes-consequences-and-controls-in-aquatic-102364466 [accessed 28 May 2019]

Moore, A., & Waring, C.P. (2001). The effects of a synthetic pyrethroid pesticide on some aspects of reproduction in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.).. Aquatic Toxicology, 52, 1-12.

Moore, A., & Lower, N. (2001). The impact of two pesticides on olfactory-mediated endocrine function in mature male Atlantic salmon ž Salmo salar L./ parr. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B, 129, 269-276.

Waring, C.P., & Moore, A. (1997). Sublethal effects of a carbamate pesticide on pheromonal mediated endocrine function in mature male Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 17, 203-211.

Moore, A., & Waring, C.P. (1996). Sublethal effects of the pesticide Diazinon on olfactory function in mature male Atlantic salmon parr. Journal of Fish Biology, 48(4), 758-775.

Kjelland, M.E., Woodley, C.M., Swannack, T.M., & Smith, D.L. (2015). A review of the potential effects of suspended sediment on fishes: potential dredging-related physiological, behavioral, and transgenerational implications. Environment Systems and Decisions, 35, 334-350.

Robertson, M.J., Scruton, D.A., & Clarke, K.D. (2007). Seasonal Effects of Suspended Sediment on the Behavior of Juvenile Atlantic Salmon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 136, 822-828.

Water Environment and Water Services (Scotland) Act 2003. (2003). Retrieved from https://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2003/3/contents [accessed 27 June 2019]

The Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2011/209/contents/made [accessed 27 June 2019]

SEPA. (2019). The Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011 (as amended) A Practical Guide. Retrieved from https://www.sepa.org.uk/media/34761/car_a_practical_guide.pdf [accessed 27 June 2019]

SEPA. (n.d.) DPMAG. Retrieved from https://www.sepa.org.uk/environment/water/river-basin-management-planning/who-is-involved-with-rbmp/dpmag/ [accessed 28 June 2019]

SEPA. (2019). DAIRY PRODUCTION SECTOR PLAN. Retrieved from https://consultation.sepa.org.uk/sector-plan/dairy-production/user_uploads/dairy-production-sector-plan-1.pdf [accessed 28 June 2019]

Humphreys, E.M., Gillings, S., Musgrove, A., Austin, G., Marchant, J., & Calladine, J. (2016). An update of the review on the impacts of piscivorous birds on salmonid populations and game fisheries in Scotland. Retrieved from https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/Publication%202016%20-%20SNH%20Commissioned%20Report%20884%20-%20An%20update%20of%20the%20review%20on%20the%20impacts%20of%20piscivorous%20birds%20on%20salmonid%20populations%20and%20game%20fisheries%20in%20Scotland.pdf [accessed 29 May 2019]

Lothian, A.J., Newton, M., Barry, J., Walters, M., Millar, R.C., & Adams, C.E. (2017). Migration pathways, speed and mortality of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts in a Scottish river and the near-shore coastal marine environment. Ecology of Freshwater Fish, 27(2), 549-558.

The River Dee. (2018). Smolt migration through the River Dee and harbour. Retrieved from http://www.riverdee.org.uk/f/articles/Smolt-tracking-2017.pdf [accessed 28 June 2019]

Hastie, L., Hudson, A., Laughton, R., & Shearer, W. (2008). The status of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) in watercourses of the Cairngorms National Park.. Retrieved from https://www.speyfisheryboard.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/EEL-REPORT-2008.pdf [accessed 28 June 2019]

Scottish Natural Heritage. (n.d.) Otter. Retrieved from https://www.nature.scot/plants-animals-and-fungi/mammals/land-mammals/otter [accessed 30 May 2019]

Carss, D.N., Kruuk, H., & Conroy, J.W.H. (1990). Predation on adult Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., by otters, Lutra lutra (L.), within the River Dee system, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Jourtial of Fish Biology,, 37, 935-944.

Scottish Natural Heritage. (n.d.) American mink. Retrieved from https://www.nature.scot/plants-animals-and-fungi/mammals/land-mammals/american-mink [accessed 30 May 2019]

Heggenes, J., & Borgstrøm, R. (1988). Effect of mink, Mustela vison Schreber, predation on cohorts of juvenile Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and brown trout, S. trutta L., in three small streams. Journal of Fish Biology. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.1988.tb05536.x

Carter, T.J., Pierce, G.J., Hislop, J.R.G., Houseman, J.A., & Boyle, P.R. (2001). Predation by seals on salmonids in two Scottish estuaries. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 8, 207-225.

Scottish Canoe Association. (2016). Seal Scarer device on River Dee. Retrieved from http://canoescotland.org/news/seal-scarer-device-river-dee [accessed 2 July 2019]

Matejusová, I., Doig, F., Middlemas, S.J., Mackay, S., Douglas, A., Armstrong, J.D., … Snow, M. (2008). Using quantitative real-time PCR to detect salmonid prey in scats of grey Halichoerus grypus and harbour Phoca vitulina seals in Scotland – an experimental and field study. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 632-640. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01429.x

Bulter, J.R.A., Middlemas, S.J., Graham, I.M., Thompson, P.M., & Armstrong, J.D. (2006). Modelling the impacts of removing seal predation from Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, rivers in Scotland: a tool for targeting conflict resolution. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 13, 285-291.

NERC Special Committee on Seals. (2017). Scientific Advice on Matters Related to the Management of Seal Populations: 2017. Retrieved from http://www.smru.st-andrews.ac.uk/files/2018/01/SCOS-2017.pdf [accessed 7 June 2019]

Chamberlain, D.E., Austin, G.E., Newson, S.E., Johnston, A., & Burton, N.H.K. (2013). Licensed control does not reduce local Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo population size in winter. Journal of Ornithology, 154(3), 739-750.

Bryce, R., Oliver, M.K., Davies, L., Gray, H., Urquhart, J., & Lambin, X. (2011). Turning back the tide of American mink invasion at an unprecedented scalethrough community participation and adaptive management. Biological Conservation, 144, 575-583.

Scottish Government. (2019). High Level Pressures on Atlantic Salmon. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/Salmon-Trout-Coarse/fishreform/licence/status/Pressures [accessed 28 June 2019]

Graham, I.M., Harris, R.N., Denny, B., Fowden, D., & Pullan, D. (2009). Testing the effectiveness of an acoustic deterrent device for excluding seals from Atlantic salmon rivers in Scotland. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66(5), 860-864. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsp111

Behavioural responses of seals to pulsed, low-voltage electric fields in sea water (preliminary tests). (n.d.)

Thorstad, E.B., Økland, F., Aarestrup, K., & Heggberget, T.G. (2008). Factors affecting the within-river spawning migration of Atlantic salmon, with emphasis on human impacts. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 18(4), 345-371.

Marine Scotland. (2017). How do dams impact river connectivity and salmon populations?. Retrieved from https://blogs.gov.scot/marine-scotland/2017/03/16/atlantic-salmon-scottish-rivers-regulated-hydropower/ [accessed 30 May 2019]

Gowans, A.R.D., Armstrong, J.D., Priede, I.G., & Mckelvey, S. (2003). Movements of Atlantic salmon migrating upstream through a fish-pass complex in Scotland. Ecology of Freshwater Fish, 12, 177-189.

SEPA. (2015). Water Environment Hub. Retrieved from https://www.sepa.org.uk/data-visualisation/water-environment-hub/ [accessed 9 July 2019]

Marschall, E.A., Mather, M.E., Parrish, D.L., Allison, G.W., & McMenemy, J.R. (2011). Migration delays caused by anthropogenic barriers: modeling dams, temperature, and success of migrating salmon smolts. Ecological Application, 21(8), 3014-3031.

Collen, P., & Gibson, R.J. (2001). The general ecology of beavers (Castor spp.), as related to their influence on stream ecosystems and riparian habitats, and the subsequent effects on fish – a review. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 10, 439-461.

Scottish Government. (2019). Beavers given protected status. Retrieved from https://www.gov.scot/news/beavers-given-protected-status/ [accessed 31 May 2019]

SPICe. (2019). Beavers set to become a protected species in Scotland (or are they?). Retrieved from https://spice-spotlight.scot/2019/03/18/beavers-set-to-become-a-protected-species-in-scotland-or-are-they/ [accessed 18 June 2019]

The Beaver Salmonid Working Group. (2015). Final report of the Beaver Salmonid Working Group. Retrieved from https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2017-11/Beaver%20Salmonid%20Working%20Group%20-%20Final%20Report%202015.pdf [accessed 28 June 2019]

SEPA. (2014). SEPA funded barrier removal improves fish migration. Retrieved from http://media.sepa.org.uk/media-releases/2014/sepa-funded-barrier-removal-improves-fish-migration.aspx [accessed 2 July 2019]

Environment Agency. (2010). Fish passes in river systems. Retrieved from http://evidence.environment-agency.gov.uk/FCERM/en/SC060065/MeasuresList/M4/M4T1.aspx [accessed 2019]

Kyle of Sutherland Fisheries. (n.d.) Current Projects. Retrieved from https://kylefisheries.org/current-projects/ [accessed 28 June 2019]

Warren, M., Dunbar, M.J., & Smith, C. (2015). River flow as a determinant of salmonid distribution and abundance: a review. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 98, 1695-1717. doi: 10.1007/s10641-015-0376-6

Milner, N.J., Solomon, D.J., & Smith, G.W. (2012). The role of river flow in the migration of adult Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, through estuaries and rivers. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 19, 537-547.

Watts, G., Jenkins, A., Hess, T., Humble, A., Olbert, C., Kay, M., … Noble, A. (2015). Agriculture’s impacts on water availability. Retrieved from https://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/publications/agricultures-impacts-water-availability.pdf [accessed 04 June 2019]

Werritty, A. (2002). Living with uncertainty: climate change, river flows and water resource management in Scotland. The Science of the Total Environment, 294, 29-40.

Parry, S. (2018). UK Hydrological Status Update - December 2018. Retrieved from https://www.ceh.ac.uk/news-and-media/blogs/uk-hydrological-status-update-december-2018 [accessed 04 June 2019]

SEPA. (2018, August 2). Water Scarcity Situation Report. Retrieved from https://www.sepa.org.uk/media/367857/20180802-wrsr.pdf [accessed 4 June 2019]

Gosling, R. (2014). Assessing the impact of projected climate change on drought vulnerability in Scotland. Hydrology Research, 45(6), 806-816. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2014.148

SEPA. (2019). 2019 SSE Freshet Schedule v3.0 Final. Retrieved from https://www.sepa.org.uk/media/407022/2019_sse_freshet.pdf [accessed 28 June 2019]

Orlov, A.V., Gerasimov, Y.V., & Lapshin, O.M. (2006). The feeding behaviour of cultured and wild Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in the Louvenga River, Kola Peninsula, Russia. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 63, 1297-1303. doi: 10.1016/j.icesjms.2006.05.004

SEPA. (2009). Engineering in the Water Environment Good Practice Guide: Riparian Vegetation Management. Retrieved from https://www.sepa.org.uk/media/151010/wat_sg_44.pdf [accessed 2 July 2019]

McLennan, D., Auer, S.K., Anderson, G.J., Reid, T.C., Basser, R.D., Stewart, D.C., … Metcalfe, N.B. (2019). Simulating nutrient release from parental carcasses increases the growth, biomass and genetic diversity of juvenile Atlantic salmon. Journal of Applied Ecology. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.13429

Environment Agency. (2009). Evaluating climatic effects on aquatic invertebrates, Phase II: review, comparisons between regions and methodological considerations. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291642/scho1209brjt-e-e.pdf [accessed 19 June 2019]

Wildlife crime in Scotland: 2017 annual report. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.gov.scot/publications/wildlife-crime-scotland-annual-report-2017/pages/4/ [accessed 05 June 2019]

The Salmon Carcass Tagging (Scotland) Regulations 2016. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2016/116/made [accessed 21 June 2019]

Police Scotland. (2016). New salmon tagging legislation information. Retrieved from https://www.scotland.police.uk/whats-happening/news/2016/july/salmon-tagging-legislation [accessed 21 June 2019]

Wildlife Crime Penalties Review Group: report. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.gov.scot/publications/wildlife-crime-penalties-review-group-report/pages/1/ [accessed 21 June 2019]

Manchester, S.J., & Bullock, J.M. (2000). The impacts of non-native species on UK biodiversity and the effectiveness of control. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 845-864.

Armstrong, J.D., Bean, C.W., & Wells, A. (2018). The Scottish invasion of pink salmon in 2017. Journal of Fish Biology, 93, 8-11. doi: 10.1111/jfb.13680

Marine Scotland. (2016). Signal crayfish – an unwelcome addition to Scottish streams. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Uploads/Documents/FW-SignalCrayfish.pdf [accessed 26 June 2019]

Winfield, I.J., Fletcher, J.M., & James, J.B. (2011). Invasive fish species in the largest lakes of Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and England: the collective UK experience. Hydrobiologia, 660(1), 93-103.

Scottish Federation for Coarse Angling. (2011). Ruffe. Retrieved from https://www.sfca.co.uk/go-fishing/know-your-fish/ruffe/ [accessed 26 June 2019]

Scottish Invasive Species Initiative. (2019). All things Invasive with the Scottish Invasive Species Initiative. Retrieved from https://www.environment.gov.scot/news/scotlands-environment-blog/all-things-invasive-with-the-scottish-invasive-species-initiative/ [accessed 28 June 2019]

Hedger, R.D., Uglem, I., Thorstad, E.B., Finstad, B., Chittenden, C.M., Arechavala-Lopez, ., … Økland, F. (2011). Behaviour of Atlantic cod, a marine fish predator, during Atlantic salmon post-smolt migration. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 68(10), 2152-2162. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsr143

SPICe. (2018). Salmon Farming in Scotland. Retrieved from https://digitalpublications.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefings/Report/2018/2/13/Salmon-Farming-in-Scotland [accessed 7 June 2019]

Scotland's Aquaculture. (n.d.) Freshwater Finfish Aquaculture. Retrieved from http://aquaculture.scotland.gov.uk/our_aquaculture/types_of_aquaculture/marine_finfish.aspx [accessed 05 June 2019]

Scotland's Aquaculture. (n.d.) Marine Finfish Aquaculture. Retrieved from http://aquaculture.scotland.gov.uk/our_aquaculture/types_of_aquaculture/marine_finfish.aspx [accessed 05 June 2019]

Scotland's Aquaculture. (2091). Fish Escapes. Retrieved from http://aquaculture.scotland.gov.uk/data/fish_escapes.aspx [accessed 05 June 2019]

North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organisation. (2016). Addressing impacts of salmon farming on wild Atlantic salmon: Challenges to, and developments supporting, achievement of NASCO's international goals. Edinburgh: NASCO.

Scottish Government. (2018). Genetic Sampling. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/Salmon-Trout-Coarse/Freshwater/Monitoring/ElectrofishingProgramme/GeneticSampling [accessed 2 July 2019]

Taranger, G.L., Karlsen, ., Bannister, R.J., Glover, K.A., Husa, V., Karlsbakk, E., … Svåsand, T. (2014). Risk assessment of the environmental impact of Norwegian Atlantic salmon farming. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsu132

Thorstad, E.B., & Finstad, B. (2018). Impacts of salmon lice emanating from salmon farms on wild Atlantic salmon and sea trout. Retrieved from https://www.salmon-trout.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Thorstad-Finstad-2018-Impacts-of-salmon-lice-NINA-Report-1449-2.pdf [accessed 6 June 2019]

Salmon & Trout Conservation Scotland. (2018). Wild Adult Salmon Run Decimated By Sea Lice. Retrieved from https://www.salmon-trout.org/2018/09/03/wild-adult-salmon-run-decimated-by-sea-lice/

Scottish Government. (2018). Summary of Science. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/Salmon-Trout-Coarse/Freshwater/Research/Aqint/troutandlice [accessed 13 August 2019]

Scottish Government. (2014). MGSA Science & Research Working Group - Aquaculture Science & Research Strategy. Retrieved from https://www.gov.scot/publications/mgsa-science-research-working-group-aquaculture-science-research-strategy/pages/20/ [accessed 13 August 2019]

Scottish Government. (2019). Salmon Interactions Workstream. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/Salmon-Trout-Coarse/salmon [accessed 2 July 2019]

Scottish Parliament. (2019). Official Report. Retrieved from http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=12164&i=109852 [accessed 5 June 2019]

Scottish Government. (2015). A Technical Standard for Scottish Finfish Aquaculture. Retrieved from https://www.gov.scot/publications/technical-standard-scottish-finfish-aquaculture/ [accessed 21 June 2019]

Handeland, S.O., Järvi, T., Fernö, A., & Stefansson, S.O. (1996). Osmotic stress, antipredator behaviour, and mortality of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 53(12), 2673-2680. doi: https://doi.org/10.1139/f96-227

Graham, I.M., Harris, R.N., Matejusova, I., & Middlemas, S.J. (2011). Do ‘rogue’ seals exist? Implications for seal conservation in the UK. Animal Conservation, 14, 587-598. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2011.00469.x

Hvidsten, N.A., & Møkkelgjerd, P.I. (1987). Predation on salmon smolts, Salmo salar L., in the estuary of the River Surna, Norway. Journal of Fish Biology. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.1987.tb05752.x

Dieperink, C., Bak, B.D., Pedersen, L.F., Pedersen, M.I., & Pedersen, S. (2002). Predation on Atlantic salmon and sea trout during their first days as postsmolts. Journal of Fish Biology, 61, 858-852. doi: doi:10.1006/jfbi.2002.2090

Renkawitz, M.D., Sheehan, T.F., & Goulette, G.S. (2012). Swimming Depth, Behavior, and Survival of Atlantic Salmon Postsmolts in Penobscot Bay, Maine. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 141(5). doi: 10.1080/00028487.2012.688916

Mills, D. (2003). Salmon at the Edge. (n.p.): Wiley-Blackwell.

RSPB. (2016). Five facts you need to know about gannets. Retrieved from https://community.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/b/scotland/posts/five-facts-you-need-to-know-about-gannets [accessed 2 July 2019]

WWF. (n.d.) Overfishing. Retrieved from https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing [accessed 10 June 2019]

Salmon & Trout Conservation. (2017). Mixed Stock Netting: The Facts. Retrieved from https://www.salmon-trout.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/MIxed-Stock-Netting.pdf [accessed 10 June 2019]

Chaput, G. (2012). Overview of the status of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the North Atlantic and trends in marine mortality. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 69(9), 1538-1548. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fss013

North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organisation. (2012). Atlantic salmon at sea: Findings from recent research and their implications for management. Retrieved from http://www.nasco.int/pdf/reports_other/Salmon_at_sea.pdf [accessed 13 June 2019]

Friedland, K.D., Chaput, G., & MacLean, J.C. (2005). The emerging role of climate in post-smolt growth of Atlantic salmon. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 62, 1338-1349. doi: 10.1016/j.icesjms.2005.04.013

Jonsson, N., & Jonsson, B. (2004). Size and age of maturity of Atlantic salmon correlate with the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAOI). Journal of Fish Biology, 64, 241-247. doi: 10.1046/j.1095-8649.2004.00269.x

Met Office. (n.d.) North Atlantic Oscillation. Retrieved from https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/atmosphere/north-atlantic-oscillation [accessed 13 June 2019]

Condron, A., DeConto, R., Bradley, R.S., & Juanes, F. (2005). Multidecadal North Atlantic climate variability and its effect on North American salmon abundance. Geophysical Research Letters, 32. doi: 10.1029/2005GL024239

Beaugrand, G., & Reid, P.C. (2012). Relationships between North Atlantic salmon, plankton, and hydroclimatic change in the Northeast Atlantic. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 69(9), 1549-1562. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fss153

Nye, J.A., Link, J.S., Hare, J.A., & Overholtz, W.J. (2009). Changing spatial distribution of fish stocks in relation to climate and population size on the Northeast United States continental shelf. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 393, 111-129. doi: 10.3354/meps08220

Windsor, M.L., Hutchinson, P., Hansen, L.P., & Reddin, D.G. (2012). Atlantic salmon at sea: Findings from recent research and their implications for management. Retrieved from http://www.nasco.int/pdf/reports_other/Salmon_at_sea.pdf [accessed 29 April 2019]

European Environment Agency. (2016). Sea surface temperature. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/sea-surface-temperature-2/assessment [accessed June 2019]

IPCC. (2013). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Haugland, M., Holst, J.C., Holm, M., & Hansen, L.P. (2006). Feeding of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) post-smolts in the Northeast Atlantic. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 63, 1488-1500. doi: 10.1016/j.icesjms.2006.06.004

Beaugrand, G., Reid, P.C., Ibanez, F., Lindley, J.A., & Edwards, M. (2002). Reorganization of North Atlantic Marine Copepod Biodiversity and Climate. Science, 296.

Todd, C.D. (n.d.) No title [No description].

Strøm, J.F., Rikardsen, A.H., Campana, S.E., Righton, D., Carr, J., Aarestrup, K., … Thorstad, E.B. (2019). Ocean predation and mortality of adult Atlantic salmon. Scientific Reports, 9. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-44041-5

Friedland, K.D., Manning, J.P., Link, J.S., Gilbert, J.R., Gilbert, A.T., & O'Connell Jr, A.F. (2012). Variation in wind and piscivorous predator fields affecting the survival of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, in the Gulf of Maine. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 19, 22-35. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2400.2011.00814.x

Moore, G. (2018). Scientist blames mackerel for wild salmon decline. Retrieved from https://www.fishfarmingexpert.com/article/scientist-blames-mackerel-for-wild-salmon-decline/ [accessed 14 June 2019]

North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization. (n.d.) Background. Retrieved from http://www.nasco.int/background.html [accessed 2 July 2019]

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. (2004). Report of the Study Group on the Bycatch of Salmon in Pelagic Trawl Fisheries (SGBYSAL). Retrieved from http://www.nasco.int/pdf/reports_other/SGBYSAL04.pdf [accessed 2 July 2019]

Scottish Government. (2019). ScotMER Evidence Maps. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/marineenergy/mre/research/maps [accessed 2 July 2019]

Scottish Government. (2019). Diadromous Evidence Map. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/marine/marineenergy/mre/research/diadromous/EvMap [accessed 2 July 2019]

United Nations. (n.d.) Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-change/ [accessed 21 June 2019]

Scottish Government. (2019). Climate Change Bill. Retrieved from https://www.gov.scot/policies/climate-change/climate-change-bill/ [accessed 21 June 2019]

Last Updated: 23/5 1:41pm

An error occured while loading, please try again in a few minutes.